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Sunday 28 August 2011
How Radio programmes are classified?
RADIO PROGRAMMES CLASSIFICATION
Radio and Television are based on major three categories programmes. Radio broadcasting ever since its birth has kept growing in terms of its programmes, policies and target areas in order to meet the requirements of its listeners and ever changing demands of the time.
Radio programmes can be classified on the basis of various criteria. However, the broad classification of programmes is made on the following basis:-
Aims of programme
Audiences of the programme
Formats of the programmes
AIMS OF PROGRAMME: Under this approach programmes are classified in accordance with the overall aims conceived by the planner. This classification comprises entertainment programme, information programme, educative programmes or social purpose programmes.
AUDIENCES OF THE PROGRAMMES: Radio programmes can also be classified into various kinds in terms of the target audience they address. Children programmes, women programmes, youth programmes, students programmes and programmes for senior citizens and rural listeners etc.
FORMATS OF THE PROGRAMME: A common and established classification of radio programmes is to categorize them in terms of various formats such as drama, talk and discussion etc.
Radio programme formats are well familiar to both the programme makers and the audience, hence names of formats are announced as such. Sometimes at a radio station separate programme section are established and production staff is assigned there e.g. Drama Section. Music Section, talk section etc. The programmes are planned, produced and presented with efforts to create a novelty in style.
The three types of programme classification are often referred to the literature and broadcast practice. In real practice, however, all these types of programmes are often studied in a natural sequence according to the demands of target area.
Other kinds of programmes are as follows:-
TALKS: Radio talk is written in simple day to day spoken language. Talks are often planned in series but there could be some stray talks according to the need of time or emergency.
INTERVIEWS: It is most important and widely used format of radio broadcasters, as people like listening to the people talking with each other.
DISCUSSION: Being an interactive form of oral communication is a suitable format for radio. To exchange our ideas thoughts with fellow human beings, it is the most ancient the most effective natural and spontaneous vehicle. Like talks and interview radio discussion is also an indigenous format of the sound medium. Following are the types of discussions:-
o Panel Discussion
o Forum Discussion
o Audience participation discussion
o Symposium
DRAMAS: Dramas are now days is diverting to television. Because its now commercialized and visualized. To write a radio drama is very difficult because there are no visual no characters. And to attract the listeners the tactful writing material should be available. Now days different NGOs sponsors the informative dramas on radio, otherwise this type is now decreases in radio.
DOCUMENTARY: It is a interprets real life situation programme. It is basically a programme which presents various aspects of topic fact or subject objectively.
MUSIC: It is the most favourite kind of radio. Now days the main aim behind the radio is to play music for listeners, during music the broadcaster plays commercials and earn money.
Radio and Television are based on major three categories programmes. Radio broadcasting ever since its birth has kept growing in terms of its programmes, policies and target areas in order to meet the requirements of its listeners and ever changing demands of the time.
Radio programmes can be classified on the basis of various criteria. However, the broad classification of programmes is made on the following basis:-
Aims of programme
Audiences of the programme
Formats of the programmes
AIMS OF PROGRAMME: Under this approach programmes are classified in accordance with the overall aims conceived by the planner. This classification comprises entertainment programme, information programme, educative programmes or social purpose programmes.
AUDIENCES OF THE PROGRAMMES: Radio programmes can also be classified into various kinds in terms of the target audience they address. Children programmes, women programmes, youth programmes, students programmes and programmes for senior citizens and rural listeners etc.
FORMATS OF THE PROGRAMME: A common and established classification of radio programmes is to categorize them in terms of various formats such as drama, talk and discussion etc.
Radio programme formats are well familiar to both the programme makers and the audience, hence names of formats are announced as such. Sometimes at a radio station separate programme section are established and production staff is assigned there e.g. Drama Section. Music Section, talk section etc. The programmes are planned, produced and presented with efforts to create a novelty in style.
The three types of programme classification are often referred to the literature and broadcast practice. In real practice, however, all these types of programmes are often studied in a natural sequence according to the demands of target area.
Other kinds of programmes are as follows:-
TALKS: Radio talk is written in simple day to day spoken language. Talks are often planned in series but there could be some stray talks according to the need of time or emergency.
INTERVIEWS: It is most important and widely used format of radio broadcasters, as people like listening to the people talking with each other.
DISCUSSION: Being an interactive form of oral communication is a suitable format for radio. To exchange our ideas thoughts with fellow human beings, it is the most ancient the most effective natural and spontaneous vehicle. Like talks and interview radio discussion is also an indigenous format of the sound medium. Following are the types of discussions:-
o Panel Discussion
o Forum Discussion
o Audience participation discussion
o Symposium
DRAMAS: Dramas are now days is diverting to television. Because its now commercialized and visualized. To write a radio drama is very difficult because there are no visual no characters. And to attract the listeners the tactful writing material should be available. Now days different NGOs sponsors the informative dramas on radio, otherwise this type is now decreases in radio.
DOCUMENTARY: It is a interprets real life situation programme. It is basically a programme which presents various aspects of topic fact or subject objectively.
MUSIC: It is the most favourite kind of radio. Now days the main aim behind the radio is to play music for listeners, during music the broadcaster plays commercials and earn money.
Types of Current Affairs programmes - TV
TYPES OF CURRENT AFFAIRS PROGRAMMES - TV
1. STUDIO PROGRAMMES: Studio Programmes are also categorized into two main format:-
a. Discussion / Talk Shows: These are basically studio programmes, although sometimes keeping in view the nature of assignment, these can also be recorded out-door. In the discussion / talks programmes, one or more than one participant takes part. If more than one participant are involved, then one of them is called compare or moderator. In the discussion programmes several opinions, whether in favour or dis-agreement can be aired. It may range from original conversations to serious arguments, but is should also stimulate interest. In the discussion programmes one can get more balanced coverage of a topic than in a single talk of interview.
Examples: Capital Talk (Geo Tv), Aaj Kal (Express)
b. Interview: In current affairs programmes the interviews are usually conducted with three types of interviewee.
- The expert
- The celebrity
- The man in the street
Main objective of current affairs interview should be to obtain information from the interviewee in the shortest possible time in the clearest way. There are different types of current affairs interviews, but essentially, they can be divided into three basic categories:
- The information interview, which seeks to bring out facts
- The opinion interview, which gathers views and comments.
- The personality interview, which portrays a great man or woman
c. Documentary: It is a travel picture. In this type a voice over throughout the documentary is exist. The sound of the human voice, or music included in this.
Example: Battle of Oil (Telecasted on Geo TV), Footstep of Bin Laden, Construction of Masjid Nabvi , SA etc
d. News Commentary: This is detailed information about one particular item (news) of general interest. Personal view point of writer is also included.
2. FIELD PRODUCTION: Out-door broadcasting van is called mobile television control room or a Mini Studio or Outside Broadcast (OB) Van. This van is used for live recording or telecast from the place where the event is happening. For example a live coverage from the football ground where the match is being played can be called. O>B. Recording. The O.B. Van can also be used at the airport for live coverage of VVIP’s arrival and departure.
O.B Van is directly linked with the television transmitter through control room where the signal is being recorded for onward direct transmission to the public network. Any activity which is covered right from the venue of the event is known as “Live Telecast”. Live telecast coverage is done through OB Van from the place where the event is taking place.
3. SPORTS COVERAGE: In the Current Affairs Programmes, basically three types of sports coverage are done.
- Live Coverage of the Sports Events
- Recorded Programme
- Informative Programme
Live Coverage of the Sports Events: These events are covered on OB Vans especially the major games like Cricket, Hockey, Football, Snooker and Table Tennis. These matches are covered live.
Recorded Programmes: Some sports events are reported after recording. Tape delay programmes. Usually this is because of non availability of funds and non accessible and difficult routes where communication is not possible for linkage.
Informative Programmes: Informative programmes relating to sports also come under current affairs coverage which are, Sports Documentary, Interviews with Sports personalities and Quiz programmes on sports.
STRUCTURE CURRENT AFFAIRS PROGRAMMES - RADIO
Radio current affairs programs may focus on a single issue, such as an election, or may sum up the various events of a week. If they cover various stories they will usually have a unifying thread to tie the stories together.
The radio programme is structured as a series of ‘lead-ins’ followed by inserted support material (that is, live or recorded interviews, comments from experts, music and special effects). The lead-in is the introduction, or set-up of the story, given by the programme’s presenter. It does not tell the story but provides background information. Lead-ins are also designed to grab the listener’s attention and focus the story. They might provide a link between recorded material or they might be a series of questions asked of a guest.
An introduction with the name of the programme and its presenter
A summary of the issue
Formal language to introduce an issue
Background information on the subject
Various opinions presented
Quotes by or interviews with experts, politicians, or people directly involved
Linking sentences and phrases between various stories and between announcer’s comments and inserted support material.
News and current affairs programmes
WHAT IS NEWS?
An expert said: “What comes first is news!”
BRIEF:
News programme is a regularly scheduled radio or television program that reports current events. It is usually reported in a series of individual stories that are presented by one or more anchors. A news programme can include live or recorded interviews by field reporters, expert opinions, opinion poll results, and occasional editorial content.
News programs hit about 10 - 20 different stories, giving each one less than two minutes.
WHAT IS CURRENT AFFAIRS?
Someone told me: “Discussing today is Current Affairs!”
BRIEF:
Current Affairs Programme is a genre of broadcast journalism where the emphasis is on detailed analysis and discussion of news stories that have recently occurred or are ongoing at the time of broadcast. This differs from regular news broadcasts where the emphasis is on news reports presented for simple presentation as soon as possible, often with a minimum of analysis. It is also different for the newsmagazine show format in that the events are discussed immediately. In current affairs discussion programmes, government officials, intellectuals, educationists, research scholars, economists, politicians, scientists and sociologists express their views. Current Affairs shows usually feature one or two guests in an interview format going in depth on one or two issues.
PURPOSE: The purpose of radio current affairs programme is to inform the public about issued and event. Rather than concentrating on the basic facts of a news story, they are aimed at helping listeners understand the meaning and the issues behind the news.
An expert said: “What comes first is news!”
BRIEF:
News programme is a regularly scheduled radio or television program that reports current events. It is usually reported in a series of individual stories that are presented by one or more anchors. A news programme can include live or recorded interviews by field reporters, expert opinions, opinion poll results, and occasional editorial content.
News programs hit about 10 - 20 different stories, giving each one less than two minutes.
WHAT IS CURRENT AFFAIRS?
Someone told me: “Discussing today is Current Affairs!”
BRIEF:
Current Affairs Programme is a genre of broadcast journalism where the emphasis is on detailed analysis and discussion of news stories that have recently occurred or are ongoing at the time of broadcast. This differs from regular news broadcasts where the emphasis is on news reports presented for simple presentation as soon as possible, often with a minimum of analysis. It is also different for the newsmagazine show format in that the events are discussed immediately. In current affairs discussion programmes, government officials, intellectuals, educationists, research scholars, economists, politicians, scientists and sociologists express their views. Current Affairs shows usually feature one or two guests in an interview format going in depth on one or two issues.
PURPOSE: The purpose of radio current affairs programme is to inform the public about issued and event. Rather than concentrating on the basic facts of a news story, they are aimed at helping listeners understand the meaning and the issues behind the news.
Wednesday 24 August 2011
Free Flow of Information
FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION
The Free Flow of Information Act is a bill intended to provide a news reporter with the right to refuse to testify as to information or sources of information obtained during the newsgathering and distribution process.
The “Free Flow of Information” is a concept linked to the basic human right of freedom of speech and opinion. Every one has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This right includes freedom to hold opinion without interference and to see, receive and impart information and ideas through any medium regardless of any frontiers.
Accurate knowledge about the true problem, about the complex aspects that affect the problem and potential solution, and about how humans tend to think, react, and behave is essential for developing practical, innovative solutions. It requires getting the requisite knowledge in applicable form to the best point in the design process. And many times, to reach this goal, we must break down some mental barriers that we have built inside our minds.
To get new information to the right people at the right time requires knowledge producers to break down many different barriers. The barriers to the flow of information are not just geographic. A gap can be found between universities and private companies, which tacitly means between scientific knowledge and product knowledge. Knowledge becomes significant only when it is expressed in practical terms, such as product development and other applications. However, information becomes knowledge and applicable only when built upon the ever-growing body of basic knowledge, which is discovered in the academic inquiry of the university.
To achieve such a complementary fusion of knowledge, those interested in the creation and application of knowledge need to find ways to scale the fences that might separate them. Such fences involve the languages (both cultural and terminological) of the fields of expertise, the different social rules and forms of expression between and within organizations, a lack of trust, and varying goals and interests, to name a few, which create barriers to effective communication and the quality use of knowledge. One possible means of bridging the gap between these distinct cultures is through open access scientific publishing. Open access journals make knowledge and discovery freely available for those who need it. Open access journals allow those who seek information to find those whose prior seeking has resulted in new perspectives, new data, new knowledge. For this reason alone open access journals are an essential part of communicating about scientific research findings and knowledge. And it seems that open access publishing is an especially natural way for university research to be distributed for the greater good.
The Free Flow of Information Act is a bill intended to provide a news reporter with the right to refuse to testify as to information or sources of information obtained during the newsgathering and distribution process.
The “Free Flow of Information” is a concept linked to the basic human right of freedom of speech and opinion. Every one has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This right includes freedom to hold opinion without interference and to see, receive and impart information and ideas through any medium regardless of any frontiers.
Accurate knowledge about the true problem, about the complex aspects that affect the problem and potential solution, and about how humans tend to think, react, and behave is essential for developing practical, innovative solutions. It requires getting the requisite knowledge in applicable form to the best point in the design process. And many times, to reach this goal, we must break down some mental barriers that we have built inside our minds.
To get new information to the right people at the right time requires knowledge producers to break down many different barriers. The barriers to the flow of information are not just geographic. A gap can be found between universities and private companies, which tacitly means between scientific knowledge and product knowledge. Knowledge becomes significant only when it is expressed in practical terms, such as product development and other applications. However, information becomes knowledge and applicable only when built upon the ever-growing body of basic knowledge, which is discovered in the academic inquiry of the university.
To achieve such a complementary fusion of knowledge, those interested in the creation and application of knowledge need to find ways to scale the fences that might separate them. Such fences involve the languages (both cultural and terminological) of the fields of expertise, the different social rules and forms of expression between and within organizations, a lack of trust, and varying goals and interests, to name a few, which create barriers to effective communication and the quality use of knowledge. One possible means of bridging the gap between these distinct cultures is through open access scientific publishing. Open access journals make knowledge and discovery freely available for those who need it. Open access journals allow those who seek information to find those whose prior seeking has resulted in new perspectives, new data, new knowledge. For this reason alone open access journals are an essential part of communicating about scientific research findings and knowledge. And it seems that open access publishing is an especially natural way for university research to be distributed for the greater good.
Media Ethics - Mass Communication - Print Media
MEDIA ETHICS
ETHICS:- Ethics also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is (meta-ethics), how moral values should be determined (normative ethics), how a moral outcome can be achieved in specific situations (applied ethics), how moral capacity or moral agency develops and what its nature is (moral psychology), and what moral values people actually abide by (descriptive ethics).
MEDIA ETHICS:- The subdivision of practical ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war journalism to Benetton advertising.
• Ethics of Journalism: The ethics of journalism is one of the most well-defined branches of media ethics, primarily because it is frequently taught in schools of journalism. News can manipulate and be manipulated. Governments and corporations may attempt to manipulate news media; governments, for example, by censorship, and corporations by share ownership. The methods of manipulation are subtle and many. Manipulation may be voluntary or involuntary. Those being manipulated may not be aware of this.
• Ethics of entertainment media: The depiction of violence and sex, and the presence of strong language. Ethical guidelines and legislation in this area are common and many media (e.g. film, computer games) are subject to ratings systems and supervision by agencies. An extensive guide to international systems of enforcement can be found under motion picture rating system. An increasingly common marketing tactic is the placement of products in entertainment media. The producers of such media may be paid high sums to display branded products. The practice is controversial and largely unregulated. Both advertising and entertainment media make heavy use of stereotypes. Stereotypes may negatively affect people's perceptions of themselves or promote socially undesirable behaviour. The stereotypical portrayals of men, wealth and ethnic groups are examples of major areas of debate.
Art is about the questioning of our values. Normative ethics is often about the enforcement and protection of our values. In media ethics, these two sides come into conflict. In the name of art, media may deliberately attempt to break with existing norms and shock the audience. The extent to which this is acceptable is always a hotbed of ethical controversy.
• Media and democracy: In democratic countries, a special relationship exists between media and government. Although the freedom of the media may be constitutionally preserve and have precise legal definition and enforcement, the exercise of that freedom by individual journalists is a matter of personal choice and ethics. Modern democratic government subsists in representation of millions by hundreds. For the representatives to be accountable, and for the process of government to be transparent, effective communication paths must exist to their constituents.
Today these paths consist primarily of the mass media, to the extent that if press freedom disappeared, so would most political accountability. In this area, media ethics merges with issues of civil rights and politics.
• Media ethics and the law: Like ethics the law seeks to balance competing aims. In most countries there are laws preventing the media from doing or saying certain things when this would unduly breach another person's rights. For instance, slander and libel are forms of defamation, a tort. Slander occurs when a person's good name is unfairly slurred. Libel is concerned with attacks on reputation through writing. A major area of conflict is between the public's "right to know", or freedom of the press, and individual's right to privacy. This clash often occurs regarding reporting into the private lives of public figures. There are restrictions in most countries on the publication of obscene material, particularly where it depicts nudity, desecration of religious objects or symbols (blasphemy), human remains or violent or sexual crime.
ETHICS:- Ethics also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is (meta-ethics), how moral values should be determined (normative ethics), how a moral outcome can be achieved in specific situations (applied ethics), how moral capacity or moral agency develops and what its nature is (moral psychology), and what moral values people actually abide by (descriptive ethics).
MEDIA ETHICS:- The subdivision of practical ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war journalism to Benetton advertising.
• Ethics of Journalism: The ethics of journalism is one of the most well-defined branches of media ethics, primarily because it is frequently taught in schools of journalism. News can manipulate and be manipulated. Governments and corporations may attempt to manipulate news media; governments, for example, by censorship, and corporations by share ownership. The methods of manipulation are subtle and many. Manipulation may be voluntary or involuntary. Those being manipulated may not be aware of this.
• Ethics of entertainment media: The depiction of violence and sex, and the presence of strong language. Ethical guidelines and legislation in this area are common and many media (e.g. film, computer games) are subject to ratings systems and supervision by agencies. An extensive guide to international systems of enforcement can be found under motion picture rating system. An increasingly common marketing tactic is the placement of products in entertainment media. The producers of such media may be paid high sums to display branded products. The practice is controversial and largely unregulated. Both advertising and entertainment media make heavy use of stereotypes. Stereotypes may negatively affect people's perceptions of themselves or promote socially undesirable behaviour. The stereotypical portrayals of men, wealth and ethnic groups are examples of major areas of debate.
Art is about the questioning of our values. Normative ethics is often about the enforcement and protection of our values. In media ethics, these two sides come into conflict. In the name of art, media may deliberately attempt to break with existing norms and shock the audience. The extent to which this is acceptable is always a hotbed of ethical controversy.
• Media and democracy: In democratic countries, a special relationship exists between media and government. Although the freedom of the media may be constitutionally preserve and have precise legal definition and enforcement, the exercise of that freedom by individual journalists is a matter of personal choice and ethics. Modern democratic government subsists in representation of millions by hundreds. For the representatives to be accountable, and for the process of government to be transparent, effective communication paths must exist to their constituents.
Today these paths consist primarily of the mass media, to the extent that if press freedom disappeared, so would most political accountability. In this area, media ethics merges with issues of civil rights and politics.
• Media ethics and the law: Like ethics the law seeks to balance competing aims. In most countries there are laws preventing the media from doing or saying certain things when this would unduly breach another person's rights. For instance, slander and libel are forms of defamation, a tort. Slander occurs when a person's good name is unfairly slurred. Libel is concerned with attacks on reputation through writing. A major area of conflict is between the public's "right to know", or freedom of the press, and individual's right to privacy. This clash often occurs regarding reporting into the private lives of public figures. There are restrictions in most countries on the publication of obscene material, particularly where it depicts nudity, desecration of religious objects or symbols (blasphemy), human remains or violent or sexual crime.
Copyright Act
COPYRIGHT ACT
Copyright:- Copyright gives the author of an original work exclusive right for a certain time period in relation to that work, including its publication, distribution and adaptation, after which time the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to any expressible form of an idea or information that is substantive and discrete and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work. Copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along with patents and trademarks.
History:- The concept of copyright originates with the Statute of Anne (1710) in Britain. It established the author of a work as the owner of the right to copy that work and the concept of a fixed term for that copyright. The Statute of Anne was the first real copyright act, and gave the authors rights for a fixed period, a fourteen year term for all works published the Statute, after which the copyright expired.
Copyright Act:- In 1790 US Congress passed an act for the encouragement of learning by securing copies of maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries"
Copyright Act in Pakistan:- In Pakistan, copyright protection is governed by the provisions of the Copyright Ordinance, 1962 ("the Ordinance") which is modeled on the English Act of 1914. Pakistan is a member of Berne Copyright Union and the Universal Copyright Convention.
One of the most significant developments in relation to the protection of copyright in Pakistan is the recent promulgation of the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1992 ("the Amendment Act"). Copyright protection originally available to literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, cinematographic and architectural works, books, photographs, newspapers, engravings, lectures, records (defined as "any disc, tape, wire, perforated roll or other device in which sounds are embodied so as to be capable of being reproduced therefrom, other than a sound track associated with a cinematographic work") and sculptures is now extended to computer software, periodicals, video films and all kind of audio-visual works.
Copyright:- Copyright gives the author of an original work exclusive right for a certain time period in relation to that work, including its publication, distribution and adaptation, after which time the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to any expressible form of an idea or information that is substantive and discrete and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work. Copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along with patents and trademarks.
History:- The concept of copyright originates with the Statute of Anne (1710) in Britain. It established the author of a work as the owner of the right to copy that work and the concept of a fixed term for that copyright. The Statute of Anne was the first real copyright act, and gave the authors rights for a fixed period, a fourteen year term for all works published the Statute, after which the copyright expired.
Copyright Act:- In 1790 US Congress passed an act for the encouragement of learning by securing copies of maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries"
Copyright Act in Pakistan:- In Pakistan, copyright protection is governed by the provisions of the Copyright Ordinance, 1962 ("the Ordinance") which is modeled on the English Act of 1914. Pakistan is a member of Berne Copyright Union and the Universal Copyright Convention.
One of the most significant developments in relation to the protection of copyright in Pakistan is the recent promulgation of the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1992 ("the Amendment Act"). Copyright protection originally available to literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, cinematographic and architectural works, books, photographs, newspapers, engravings, lectures, records (defined as "any disc, tape, wire, perforated roll or other device in which sounds are embodied so as to be capable of being reproduced therefrom, other than a sound track associated with a cinematographic work") and sculptures is now extended to computer software, periodicals, video films and all kind of audio-visual works.
Defamation
DEFAMATION
In law, defamation–also called calumny, libel (for written words), slander (for spoken words), and vilification–is the communication of a statement that makes a claim, expressly stated or implied to be factual, that may give an individual, business, product, group, government or nation a negative image. It is usually, but not always, a requirement that this claim be false and that the publication is communicated to someone other than the person defamed (the claimant).
In common law jurisdictions, slander refers to a malicious, false and defamatory spoken statement or report, while libel refers to any other form of communication such as written words or images. Most jurisdictions allow legal actions, civil and/or criminal, to deter various kinds of defamation and retaliate against groundless criticism. Related to defamation is public disclosure of private facts, which arises where one person reveals information that is not of public concern, and the release of which would offend a reasonable person. "Unlike [with] libel, truth is not a defense for invasion of privacy."
False light laws are "intended primarily to protect the plaintiff's mental or emotional well-being." If a publication of information is false, then a tort of defamation might have occurred. If that communication is not technically false but is still misleading, then a tort of false light might have occurred.
Example:- Akhtar, during a television chat show, had described the former PCB chairman Nasim Ashraf, as a 'second grade person', and said that all previous administrators had done nothing but ruined the game in the country.
Action:- LAHORE - Chairman Pakistan Cricket Board Dr. Nasim Ashraf Friday filed a defamation suit against national pace bowler Shoaib Akhtar seeking damages of Rs 220 million for uttering derogatory remarks against the board's head.
In law, defamation–also called calumny, libel (for written words), slander (for spoken words), and vilification–is the communication of a statement that makes a claim, expressly stated or implied to be factual, that may give an individual, business, product, group, government or nation a negative image. It is usually, but not always, a requirement that this claim be false and that the publication is communicated to someone other than the person defamed (the claimant).
In common law jurisdictions, slander refers to a malicious, false and defamatory spoken statement or report, while libel refers to any other form of communication such as written words or images. Most jurisdictions allow legal actions, civil and/or criminal, to deter various kinds of defamation and retaliate against groundless criticism. Related to defamation is public disclosure of private facts, which arises where one person reveals information that is not of public concern, and the release of which would offend a reasonable person. "Unlike [with] libel, truth is not a defense for invasion of privacy."
False light laws are "intended primarily to protect the plaintiff's mental or emotional well-being." If a publication of information is false, then a tort of defamation might have occurred. If that communication is not technically false but is still misleading, then a tort of false light might have occurred.
Example:- Akhtar, during a television chat show, had described the former PCB chairman Nasim Ashraf, as a 'second grade person', and said that all previous administrators had done nothing but ruined the game in the country.
Action:- LAHORE - Chairman Pakistan Cricket Board Dr. Nasim Ashraf Friday filed a defamation suit against national pace bowler Shoaib Akhtar seeking damages of Rs 220 million for uttering derogatory remarks against the board's head.
Problems of Newspaper Industry in Pakistan
PROBLEMS OF NEWSPAPER INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN
Problems of newspaper industry in Pakistan can be categorized in to two main parts:-
Internal Problems
External Problems
INTERNAL: Internal problems comprises on the newspaper organizational problems. Following are the main problems:
o Workload: Workload problem means the huge work on the organization. Any organization which has the huge work need to be employed a staff to meet the requirement. There is shortage of staff.
o Non Professional: Non professional staff is also the burden on any organization. There are non professional staff who can not meet the requirement as they are not expert.
o Press Laws: Print and Publication laws are the major problem of the industry. There is laws who has to be amended and needs to be implemented.
EXTERNAL: External problems are those who directly or indirectly affect the industry, following are the main problems:
o Government: Government plays vital role in the industry. Its policies are affecting the industry.
o Advertisement: Un-equal distribution of advertisements. Advertisements are the main source of income of newspaper. All the newspapers depends on the advertisements. The government issues advertisements through its department Press Information Department (PID) which give the advertisement to the newspaper. There is a gap and monopoly to distribute the advertisement. On the other hand there is no fair policy to distribute the advertisement.
o Pressure Groups: Pressure groups means Political, Social, Commercial and Religious. These groups have a prominent role in the fluctuation of newspaper society. Sometime, political influenced in a negative sense sometime commercial. So these groups are the main factor and problem of the news industry.
o Newsprint: Newspaper material (newsprint) is the main component which is imported from abroad. The government imposed the taxes on the import of that. Because of these taxes the price of newspaper cannot be remain constant and the owners has to increase the price as they has to meet their expenses and cost.
o Import Duties: It is unfortunate that in Pakistan there are lots of taxes, duties imposed. Government imposing the duties, excise, taxes on the import and export. If this will continue then the time will come when we will not be able to import things and there will be shortage of the things which are not available in our country. Import duties on printing material and machinery etc are the major problems of the industry.
SOLUTION:
In my point of view, the problems of industry can be reduce or completely solve. The thing is that the industry owners should be united. They think individually and the above factors get advantage. And the other thing is there should be printing laws which should be implemented on all the industry without the difference of major or minor group. Third suggestion is government should take a step to stabilize the industry through its fair advertisement distribution. The advertisement should be fair and according to the industry circulation. In this scene the organization who are publishing the newspaper have to be fair. They should submit and work honestly and pay taxes as per laws. Fourth thing is organizational training, the industry has to conduct training programmes and other initiatives to train their people/staff, so that the efficiency of staff and lack of perfection and workload factors can be removed.
As far as printing items ie. paper, machinery, taxes etc are concerned these can be meet by the government level. Government should discuss these matter to industry and give them some extra favour in importing the items.
Problems of newspaper industry in Pakistan can be categorized in to two main parts:-
Internal Problems
External Problems
INTERNAL: Internal problems comprises on the newspaper organizational problems. Following are the main problems:
o Workload: Workload problem means the huge work on the organization. Any organization which has the huge work need to be employed a staff to meet the requirement. There is shortage of staff.
o Non Professional: Non professional staff is also the burden on any organization. There are non professional staff who can not meet the requirement as they are not expert.
o Press Laws: Print and Publication laws are the major problem of the industry. There is laws who has to be amended and needs to be implemented.
EXTERNAL: External problems are those who directly or indirectly affect the industry, following are the main problems:
o Government: Government plays vital role in the industry. Its policies are affecting the industry.
o Advertisement: Un-equal distribution of advertisements. Advertisements are the main source of income of newspaper. All the newspapers depends on the advertisements. The government issues advertisements through its department Press Information Department (PID) which give the advertisement to the newspaper. There is a gap and monopoly to distribute the advertisement. On the other hand there is no fair policy to distribute the advertisement.
o Pressure Groups: Pressure groups means Political, Social, Commercial and Religious. These groups have a prominent role in the fluctuation of newspaper society. Sometime, political influenced in a negative sense sometime commercial. So these groups are the main factor and problem of the news industry.
o Newsprint: Newspaper material (newsprint) is the main component which is imported from abroad. The government imposed the taxes on the import of that. Because of these taxes the price of newspaper cannot be remain constant and the owners has to increase the price as they has to meet their expenses and cost.
o Import Duties: It is unfortunate that in Pakistan there are lots of taxes, duties imposed. Government imposing the duties, excise, taxes on the import and export. If this will continue then the time will come when we will not be able to import things and there will be shortage of the things which are not available in our country. Import duties on printing material and machinery etc are the major problems of the industry.
SOLUTION:
In my point of view, the problems of industry can be reduce or completely solve. The thing is that the industry owners should be united. They think individually and the above factors get advantage. And the other thing is there should be printing laws which should be implemented on all the industry without the difference of major or minor group. Third suggestion is government should take a step to stabilize the industry through its fair advertisement distribution. The advertisement should be fair and according to the industry circulation. In this scene the organization who are publishing the newspaper have to be fair. They should submit and work honestly and pay taxes as per laws. Fourth thing is organizational training, the industry has to conduct training programmes and other initiatives to train their people/staff, so that the efficiency of staff and lack of perfection and workload factors can be removed.
As far as printing items ie. paper, machinery, taxes etc are concerned these can be meet by the government level. Government should discuss these matter to industry and give them some extra favour in importing the items.
Freedom of Press
FREEDOM OF PRESS
Freedom of press is regarded as an inalienable right of people in a free society. It carries with it the freedom and responsibility to discuss, question, and challenge actions and utterances of government, public and private institutions. Journalists uphold the right to speak unpopular opinions and the privilege to agree with the majority. Freedom of press belongs to the people. It must be defended against encroachment or assault from any quarter, public or private. Journalists must be constantly alert to see that the public business is conducted in public. They must be vigilant against all who would exploit the media for self interest.
Freedom of the press consists of lawful or statutory protections pertaining to the media and published materials.
With respect to governmental information, any government distinguishes which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret and being otherwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest.
As the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers"
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological theory that an entity whether it is a government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. This responsibility can be "negative", meaning there is a responsibility to refrain from acting (resistance stance) or it can be "positive," meaning there is a responsibility to act (proactive stance).
Media serve many important responsibilities, for the society such as social economic, educational, religious, cultural etc. Many people think that media play a vital role in making democracy work.. media can render the day to day lives of the people better, it can entertain them to be more specific, the major responsibilities are:-
o To give a daily account of what is happening in the surroundings and world.
o To serve as a watchdog on government
o To inform citizens so that they can participate in decision making activities
o To provide practical information for day to day living
o To provide adult education
o To provide entertainment
OPINION
A free press means free people and freedom of speech and expression is the fundamental right of every human being, provision of which is liable on the government of the land he dwells on.
In an international context of press and media, as far as its freedom is concerned it is generally accepted and proven that no ‘absolute’ freedom is given to them no matter however independent a government would be, there exists a regulatory body which is in agreement with the supreme laws that govern the country, regulates the news brought in and views of the journalists in order to safegaurd the solidarity and dignity of the country. The function of the media is to inform and engage citizens through the free flow of information that advances democratic and economic development. A professional and free media sector builds more transparent and effective governance, promotes fair and open economies, and generates responsible discussion about social and political issues aiming towards public satisfaction in their representatives as well as understanding of the problems of the public by the later to formulate and implement favorable policies
The press in Pakistan holds significant power and has suffered much under various political leaders, only to emerge resilient and more committed to freedom of speech. The existence of such a free press is remarkable given the often harsh means used by various governments to control it.
Historically, the press and media had been under pressure regardless of the nature of the government be it a military dictatorship or a so called ‘democratic’. The buzzword of ‘freedom’ has been reinforced by every government in the last 61 years but the unfortunate truth is that the press had never been free and compelled to be the mouthpiece of the ruling parties in the government . Imprisoning of the journalists and banning of newspapers and TV channels is not new in our country but the last few years have been worst for Pakistani press. According to the statistics provided by the Intermedia in their Annual State of Pakistani Media Report 2007- 08, the analysis covering a period of 12 months i.e. from May 07 to May 08, 15 journalists were murdered in the line of duty, 357 were arrested, 123 sustained injuries in physical assaults, 154 were harassed while there were 18 cases of attacks and ransacking of media properties and 88 cases of various gag orders issued by the government.
Incidents like these and the same in the past have resulted in a clash between the government and the press which consequently brings social and political instability in the country which leads to public cynicism in both the media itself and the government.
Freedom of press is regarded as an inalienable right of people in a free society. It carries with it the freedom and responsibility to discuss, question, and challenge actions and utterances of government, public and private institutions. Journalists uphold the right to speak unpopular opinions and the privilege to agree with the majority. Freedom of press belongs to the people. It must be defended against encroachment or assault from any quarter, public or private. Journalists must be constantly alert to see that the public business is conducted in public. They must be vigilant against all who would exploit the media for self interest.
Freedom of the press consists of lawful or statutory protections pertaining to the media and published materials.
With respect to governmental information, any government distinguishes which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret and being otherwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest.
As the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers"
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological theory that an entity whether it is a government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. This responsibility can be "negative", meaning there is a responsibility to refrain from acting (resistance stance) or it can be "positive," meaning there is a responsibility to act (proactive stance).
Media serve many important responsibilities, for the society such as social economic, educational, religious, cultural etc. Many people think that media play a vital role in making democracy work.. media can render the day to day lives of the people better, it can entertain them to be more specific, the major responsibilities are:-
o To give a daily account of what is happening in the surroundings and world.
o To serve as a watchdog on government
o To inform citizens so that they can participate in decision making activities
o To provide practical information for day to day living
o To provide adult education
o To provide entertainment
OPINION
A free press means free people and freedom of speech and expression is the fundamental right of every human being, provision of which is liable on the government of the land he dwells on.
In an international context of press and media, as far as its freedom is concerned it is generally accepted and proven that no ‘absolute’ freedom is given to them no matter however independent a government would be, there exists a regulatory body which is in agreement with the supreme laws that govern the country, regulates the news brought in and views of the journalists in order to safegaurd the solidarity and dignity of the country. The function of the media is to inform and engage citizens through the free flow of information that advances democratic and economic development. A professional and free media sector builds more transparent and effective governance, promotes fair and open economies, and generates responsible discussion about social and political issues aiming towards public satisfaction in their representatives as well as understanding of the problems of the public by the later to formulate and implement favorable policies
The press in Pakistan holds significant power and has suffered much under various political leaders, only to emerge resilient and more committed to freedom of speech. The existence of such a free press is remarkable given the often harsh means used by various governments to control it.
Historically, the press and media had been under pressure regardless of the nature of the government be it a military dictatorship or a so called ‘democratic’. The buzzword of ‘freedom’ has been reinforced by every government in the last 61 years but the unfortunate truth is that the press had never been free and compelled to be the mouthpiece of the ruling parties in the government . Imprisoning of the journalists and banning of newspapers and TV channels is not new in our country but the last few years have been worst for Pakistani press. According to the statistics provided by the Intermedia in their Annual State of Pakistani Media Report 2007- 08, the analysis covering a period of 12 months i.e. from May 07 to May 08, 15 journalists were murdered in the line of duty, 357 were arrested, 123 sustained injuries in physical assaults, 154 were harassed while there were 18 cases of attacks and ransacking of media properties and 88 cases of various gag orders issued by the government.
Incidents like these and the same in the past have resulted in a clash between the government and the press which consequently brings social and political instability in the country which leads to public cynicism in both the media itself and the government.
Economic of Newspaper, Advertising increase circulation
Explain the economics of a newspaper. Can advertising increase circulation?
ECONOMIC OF NEWSPAPER
There's an old saying that you'll never understand newspaper economics until you understand why newspaper vending machines are designed so that you can take as many papers as you like for your quarter. Newspapers are, first and last, devices for delivering ads to readers. It's the ads which account for all the profits, not the cash coming from subscribers or people who buy their paper at the newsstand. Yes, news itself is free, nowadays. But it always has been. What we've been paying for all these years was never news, it was papers.
The main source of income for newspaper is advertisements which they publish regularly. Most of the advertisements published in newspapers emanate from federal, provincial and local government departments. Advertisements constitute backbone of the newspaper industry. They play an important role in bringing the prices of newspaper to a moderate level. The distribution of these advertisements on behalf of the government is mostly don through information/publicity departments while the other institutions of private sector send their advertisements direct to the newspaper offices.
The key to the economic problems confronting newspapers lies with the government. The economic problems become a great obstacle in the way of journalistic freedom. Besides advertisements, newspapers in Pakistan have to face the problems of newsprint, import duty, printing material, circulation, distribution, mean of communication, means of getting news etc.
ADVERTISING INCREASE CIRCULATION
Advertising is the printed, audio, video or pictured representation of a person, product service or movement openly sponsored by the advertiser at his expenses for the purpose of influencing sales, use and votes etc.
Advertising is a business that feeds advertising agencies, newspapers, radio and television and contributes a lot in providing finances to news media. Advertisers convey their message to the masses through purchasing time in electronic media and space in print media and thus provide them a bulk of revenue.
Newspaper advertising, a popular avenue for consumer approach, is influential in economical living, business growth and community progress. There is convincing evidence that advertising can lead to lower prices, great profits., reduced selling cost and increased turnover. In newspapers generally there are display and classified types of advertisements.
Circulation is the lifeblood of a newspaper. Without it a newspaper would get no advertisements which is the backbone of a newspaper organization and without advertisements a newspaper cannot survive. To perform its important duties like selling, delivering and collecting effectively, the circulation division of a newspaper organization is split into several units. To increase the circulation and to deliver the paper to far flung areas, necessary work is conducted and then advanced methods of increasing the circulation are introduced.
HOW ADVERTISING INCREASE CIRCULATION
Tenders:- Almost all the companies who requires tenders for any type of work published their requirement in newspapers. So the firms who filled the tenders or interesting to work they catch the newspapers and approach the companies who requires tenders.
Jobs:- As unemployment is the major issue of world, it is impossible to inform one by one for job opportunity, so the easiest way to inform majority of people for vacancies. And on the other side the job seekers are also a regular reader of newspaper for job opportunities.
Academic:- Most of the colleges, universities and academic departments now announces their semesters, admissions and results through advertisements in newspapers which cause in circulation increase. The students read newspapers to get in touch with the updates of their academic departments.
Class ads :- This type of advertisement is very popular now days, individuals, small businessmen promotes their business and buying and selling of goods, vehicles, plots etc.
Entertainment:- Entertainment advertisements are also published in newspaper which attracts the peoples who desires to be entertained e.g Films announcement, Music announcement, concerts etc.
CONCLUSION
All the above and other advertisement either from government or private sectors published in the newspaper are directly or indirectly increase the readership and once the readership is increased then automatically circulation will increase. However, advertisement and circulation of a newspaper is interrelated and have two-way effect, as big circulation of a newspaper attracts more advertisement and more advertisement increases further readership that results in increase of circulation. It means that this process has chain reaction.
ECONOMIC OF NEWSPAPER
There's an old saying that you'll never understand newspaper economics until you understand why newspaper vending machines are designed so that you can take as many papers as you like for your quarter. Newspapers are, first and last, devices for delivering ads to readers. It's the ads which account for all the profits, not the cash coming from subscribers or people who buy their paper at the newsstand. Yes, news itself is free, nowadays. But it always has been. What we've been paying for all these years was never news, it was papers.
The main source of income for newspaper is advertisements which they publish regularly. Most of the advertisements published in newspapers emanate from federal, provincial and local government departments. Advertisements constitute backbone of the newspaper industry. They play an important role in bringing the prices of newspaper to a moderate level. The distribution of these advertisements on behalf of the government is mostly don through information/publicity departments while the other institutions of private sector send their advertisements direct to the newspaper offices.
The key to the economic problems confronting newspapers lies with the government. The economic problems become a great obstacle in the way of journalistic freedom. Besides advertisements, newspapers in Pakistan have to face the problems of newsprint, import duty, printing material, circulation, distribution, mean of communication, means of getting news etc.
ADVERTISING INCREASE CIRCULATION
Advertising is the printed, audio, video or pictured representation of a person, product service or movement openly sponsored by the advertiser at his expenses for the purpose of influencing sales, use and votes etc.
Advertising is a business that feeds advertising agencies, newspapers, radio and television and contributes a lot in providing finances to news media. Advertisers convey their message to the masses through purchasing time in electronic media and space in print media and thus provide them a bulk of revenue.
Newspaper advertising, a popular avenue for consumer approach, is influential in economical living, business growth and community progress. There is convincing evidence that advertising can lead to lower prices, great profits., reduced selling cost and increased turnover. In newspapers generally there are display and classified types of advertisements.
Circulation is the lifeblood of a newspaper. Without it a newspaper would get no advertisements which is the backbone of a newspaper organization and without advertisements a newspaper cannot survive. To perform its important duties like selling, delivering and collecting effectively, the circulation division of a newspaper organization is split into several units. To increase the circulation and to deliver the paper to far flung areas, necessary work is conducted and then advanced methods of increasing the circulation are introduced.
HOW ADVERTISING INCREASE CIRCULATION
Tenders:- Almost all the companies who requires tenders for any type of work published their requirement in newspapers. So the firms who filled the tenders or interesting to work they catch the newspapers and approach the companies who requires tenders.
Jobs:- As unemployment is the major issue of world, it is impossible to inform one by one for job opportunity, so the easiest way to inform majority of people for vacancies. And on the other side the job seekers are also a regular reader of newspaper for job opportunities.
Academic:- Most of the colleges, universities and academic departments now announces their semesters, admissions and results through advertisements in newspapers which cause in circulation increase. The students read newspapers to get in touch with the updates of their academic departments.
Class ads :- This type of advertisement is very popular now days, individuals, small businessmen promotes their business and buying and selling of goods, vehicles, plots etc.
Entertainment:- Entertainment advertisements are also published in newspaper which attracts the peoples who desires to be entertained e.g Films announcement, Music announcement, concerts etc.
CONCLUSION
All the above and other advertisement either from government or private sectors published in the newspaper are directly or indirectly increase the readership and once the readership is increased then automatically circulation will increase. However, advertisement and circulation of a newspaper is interrelated and have two-way effect, as big circulation of a newspaper attracts more advertisement and more advertisement increases further readership that results in increase of circulation. It means that this process has chain reaction.
News agency Journalism, Role & scope of news agency
Give a historical sketch of news agency journalism. Discuss the role and scope of news agency journalism in the contemporary mass media scene in Pakistan. Also discuss the impact on the growth of professionalism in Pakistan caused by Pakistani mass media’s increased reliance on news agency journalism
NEWS AGENCY
The concept of wire service was taken from courier pigeon service between two cities of Europe which had not been linked by telegraph in the first half of the 19th century. The first modern wire service was the Associated Press (AP) which did not acquire its present form until a dispute erupted between its eastern and western factions, resulting in the formation of the Associated Press of Illinois. United Press International (UPI) became the first supplier of news to radio stations. Before 1947 the Muslim newspapers were dependent on Hindu dominated news agencies. At that time two news agencies namely Associated Press of India and United Press of India were important. Syed Mohammad of Bihar established Orient Press of India in 1940 in Patna. After partition the Associated Press of India was converted into the Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) by its Lahore Bureau. Similarly, Pakistan Press International (PPI) and UPI were established in 1949.
NATIONAL NEWS AGENCIES
The wire services have to rely on the government subsidy since the normal monthly subscription from the newspapers and other media organizations is very low. Normally the tariff for the service is as low as Rs. 10,000/-per month. There are reports that some news agencies resort to selling the service for only Rs. 2,000/- per month. It is obvious that these services cannot make enough revenue to sustain at this rate. Also recovering dues from the media organizations is another big challenge.
Association Press of Pakistan (APP) Corporation: APP is official news agency of Pakistan that is controlled by the Information Ministry. “ The Association Press of Pakistan started its life 1947, with the independence of Pakistan. Initially it was run through a trust, but owing to financial problems, it was taken over by the Government through an Ordinance called, “Association Press of Pakistan (taking over) Ordinance 1961”, on 15th June 1961, to put it on a sound financial footing.”
Although at the time of takeover the then government had announced that the agency will be handed over to a trust of employees that never happened. APP’s main role is to report, gather and distribute domestic and foreign news. Besides economic, financial and sports reports, it projects national events. Its charter of functions is to:
APP was made a corporation in 2002, when the military government introduced new media laws just before the general elections.
Online: Online is a news / photo agency of Pakistan. At the time of its launch, this was Pakistan’s first bilingual news and photo wire service that claimed to address issues that are neglected by the mainstream media. Agency was also the first modern wire service relying on latest technology. The agency’s photo service is more relied upon by the news media than its news service. It has started its weekly publication Pulse.
Pakistan Press International: PPI was the first news agency in the private sector. The company was incorporated and started its operations after the independence of Pakistan. Regardless of the fact that it also received subsidy from the government of Pakistan, it has been respected for its independent status. Till early 1990s this was second largest news agency after the official APP.
News Network International: NNI was established in 1992, it was the first Urdu language wire service. The agency created its own space and was soon recognized and subscribed by all the mainstream media.
INTERNATIONAL NEWS AGENCIES
AP, UPI, Reuter and AFP are the major foreign news agencies. AP and UPI both have some 200 bureaus operating the worldwide. It is the task of a bureau to gather and transmit information. AP has its head office at New York. It exchanges news on mutual grounds with other news agencies. UPI operates in more than 100 countries, serving 5000 publications and radio stations in the United States. UPI is a privately owned company. Reuter was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in England. Reuter provided free trial service to the newspapers in 1858. It is delivering news to media in 15 countries. AFP was established in France. It has 12000 subscribers in 160 countries and is distributing news in six languages.
ROLE AND SCOPE OF NEWS AGENCY
Basis function of a news agency is to deliver up-to-date, impartial and well written news. This requires continuous revision of stores. An additional aim is to keep intact as much of each original story as possible, so that material already set in type may be retained. The result is that a basic story will be revised many times in bits ranging from an inserted phrase to a few paragraphs. Generally, only the most timeless features and insignificant sidebars are moved in single neat packages that “stand” for an entire transmission cycle. The stories are revised several times in order to correct errors, add the latest information and improve emphasis, readability and brightness. News agency has its own sources of news including its separate reporting section and foreign based correspondents. A separate news room performs the selection and editing process under the supervision of desk incharge and shift incharge. News agency’s writers and editors usually work under time pressure. News agencies have main trunk distribution circuits running across the country.
In the present situation, where electronic media is on top the role and scope of news agencies is increasing. However, the print and electronic media is also increasing their reporters but for the international news they are rely on news agencies. Foreign and local news agencies are increasing their sources and appointing professionals to explore the world of news.
News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g. Press Association, Thomson Reuters, UPI). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media companies, generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news agencies may chose to pick up and redistribute (i.e. AP, Agence France-Presse (AFP), MYOP). Commercial newswire services charge businesses to distribute their news (e.g. Business Wire, the Hugin Group, Market Wire, PR Newswire, and ABN Newswire). Governments may also control news agencies: China (Xinhua), Canada, Russia (ITAR-TASS) and other countries also have government-funded news agencies which also use information from other agencies well.
The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.
Internet-based alternative news agencies as a component of the larger alternative media emphasizes a "non-corporate view" that is independent of the pressures of corporate media, business media and government-generated news and releases.
CONCLUSION
As the news agencies are the first source of news in the early days of life of newspaper and with the passage of time the print and electronic media is growing faster, however the reliance on the news agencies are somehow is still there.
Basically news agencies are working on quantitative policy, they have agreement with the newspaper’s management against the each news or bulk news. In some cases the authencity of the news is doubtful. But still news agencies play a vital role in the modern media.
On the other hand to get a news from the government department the role of news agency which is government owned agency is very important. For the international news they play a major role. Somehow, we can say the role of news agencies cannot be decreases.
NEWS AGENCY
The concept of wire service was taken from courier pigeon service between two cities of Europe which had not been linked by telegraph in the first half of the 19th century. The first modern wire service was the Associated Press (AP) which did not acquire its present form until a dispute erupted between its eastern and western factions, resulting in the formation of the Associated Press of Illinois. United Press International (UPI) became the first supplier of news to radio stations. Before 1947 the Muslim newspapers were dependent on Hindu dominated news agencies. At that time two news agencies namely Associated Press of India and United Press of India were important. Syed Mohammad of Bihar established Orient Press of India in 1940 in Patna. After partition the Associated Press of India was converted into the Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) by its Lahore Bureau. Similarly, Pakistan Press International (PPI) and UPI were established in 1949.
NATIONAL NEWS AGENCIES
The wire services have to rely on the government subsidy since the normal monthly subscription from the newspapers and other media organizations is very low. Normally the tariff for the service is as low as Rs. 10,000/-per month. There are reports that some news agencies resort to selling the service for only Rs. 2,000/- per month. It is obvious that these services cannot make enough revenue to sustain at this rate. Also recovering dues from the media organizations is another big challenge.
Association Press of Pakistan (APP) Corporation: APP is official news agency of Pakistan that is controlled by the Information Ministry. “ The Association Press of Pakistan started its life 1947, with the independence of Pakistan. Initially it was run through a trust, but owing to financial problems, it was taken over by the Government through an Ordinance called, “Association Press of Pakistan (taking over) Ordinance 1961”, on 15th June 1961, to put it on a sound financial footing.”
Although at the time of takeover the then government had announced that the agency will be handed over to a trust of employees that never happened. APP’s main role is to report, gather and distribute domestic and foreign news. Besides economic, financial and sports reports, it projects national events. Its charter of functions is to:
APP was made a corporation in 2002, when the military government introduced new media laws just before the general elections.
Online: Online is a news / photo agency of Pakistan. At the time of its launch, this was Pakistan’s first bilingual news and photo wire service that claimed to address issues that are neglected by the mainstream media. Agency was also the first modern wire service relying on latest technology. The agency’s photo service is more relied upon by the news media than its news service. It has started its weekly publication Pulse.
Pakistan Press International: PPI was the first news agency in the private sector. The company was incorporated and started its operations after the independence of Pakistan. Regardless of the fact that it also received subsidy from the government of Pakistan, it has been respected for its independent status. Till early 1990s this was second largest news agency after the official APP.
News Network International: NNI was established in 1992, it was the first Urdu language wire service. The agency created its own space and was soon recognized and subscribed by all the mainstream media.
INTERNATIONAL NEWS AGENCIES
AP, UPI, Reuter and AFP are the major foreign news agencies. AP and UPI both have some 200 bureaus operating the worldwide. It is the task of a bureau to gather and transmit information. AP has its head office at New York. It exchanges news on mutual grounds with other news agencies. UPI operates in more than 100 countries, serving 5000 publications and radio stations in the United States. UPI is a privately owned company. Reuter was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in England. Reuter provided free trial service to the newspapers in 1858. It is delivering news to media in 15 countries. AFP was established in France. It has 12000 subscribers in 160 countries and is distributing news in six languages.
ROLE AND SCOPE OF NEWS AGENCY
Basis function of a news agency is to deliver up-to-date, impartial and well written news. This requires continuous revision of stores. An additional aim is to keep intact as much of each original story as possible, so that material already set in type may be retained. The result is that a basic story will be revised many times in bits ranging from an inserted phrase to a few paragraphs. Generally, only the most timeless features and insignificant sidebars are moved in single neat packages that “stand” for an entire transmission cycle. The stories are revised several times in order to correct errors, add the latest information and improve emphasis, readability and brightness. News agency has its own sources of news including its separate reporting section and foreign based correspondents. A separate news room performs the selection and editing process under the supervision of desk incharge and shift incharge. News agency’s writers and editors usually work under time pressure. News agencies have main trunk distribution circuits running across the country.
In the present situation, where electronic media is on top the role and scope of news agencies is increasing. However, the print and electronic media is also increasing their reporters but for the international news they are rely on news agencies. Foreign and local news agencies are increasing their sources and appointing professionals to explore the world of news.
News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g. Press Association, Thomson Reuters, UPI). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media companies, generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news agencies may chose to pick up and redistribute (i.e. AP, Agence France-Presse (AFP), MYOP). Commercial newswire services charge businesses to distribute their news (e.g. Business Wire, the Hugin Group, Market Wire, PR Newswire, and ABN Newswire). Governments may also control news agencies: China (Xinhua), Canada, Russia (ITAR-TASS) and other countries also have government-funded news agencies which also use information from other agencies well.
The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.
Internet-based alternative news agencies as a component of the larger alternative media emphasizes a "non-corporate view" that is independent of the pressures of corporate media, business media and government-generated news and releases.
CONCLUSION
As the news agencies are the first source of news in the early days of life of newspaper and with the passage of time the print and electronic media is growing faster, however the reliance on the news agencies are somehow is still there.
Basically news agencies are working on quantitative policy, they have agreement with the newspaper’s management against the each news or bulk news. In some cases the authencity of the news is doubtful. But still news agencies play a vital role in the modern media.
On the other hand to get a news from the government department the role of news agency which is government owned agency is very important. For the international news they play a major role. Somehow, we can say the role of news agencies cannot be decreases.
Media ownership and its different forms
MEDIA OWNERSHIP AS GLOBAL
Media ownership (also known as media consolidation) is a commonly used term that refers to the majority of the media outlets being owned by a small number of corporations and especially by those who view such consolidation as detrimental, dangerous, or otherwise problematic to characterize ownership structure of mass media industries.
Media ownership may refer to states of oligopoly or monopoly in a given media industry, or to the importance of a low number of media corporations. Large media conglomerates include, National Amusements, Viacom, CBS Corporation, Time Warner, News Corp, Bertelsmann AG, Sony, General Electric, Vivendi SA, Hearst Corporation, Organizações Globo and Lagardère Group.
For example, movie production is known to be dominated by major studios since the early 20th Century; before that, there was a period in which Edison's Trust monopolized the industry. The music and television industries recently witnessed cases of media consolidation, with Sony Music Entertainment's parent company merging their music division with Bertelsmann AG's BMG to form Sony BMG and TimeWarner's The WB and CBS Corp.'s UPN merging to form The CW. In the case of Sony BMG, there existed a "Big Five" (now "Big Four") of major record companies, while The CW's creation was an attempt to consolidate ratings and stand up to the "Big Four" of American network (terrestrial) television.
The print media display the greatest diversity of all, in both ownership and content. They range from daily to weekly newspapers, from news magazines to a range of special interest publications. The print media are usually in private hands. The main exceptions are likely to be authoritarian or dictatorial systems under which free elections are unlikely to be on the agenda. But there are also countries, such as some in northern Europe, where a public subsidy is paid to newspapers to ensure the political diversity of the press. In countries emerging from dictatorship, aid donors sometimes subsidize private newspapers with a similar aim. By and large, however, newspapers derive their income from advertising and sales revenue (with the former usually much more significant than the latter). The ideal of the "Fourth Estate" - the media keeping a check over government - is perhaps more effective in the print media than broadcasting. At least some newspapers in any country are likely to conduct serious news investigations and o comment in a reasonably sophisticated manner on political developments. The same is not always true of broadcasters.
MEDIA OF PAKISTAN
In the early twenty-first century, the amount of print media in Pakistan declined precipitously while total circulation increased. From 1994 to 1997, the total number of daily, monthly, and other publications increased from 3,242 to 4,455 but had dropped to just 945 by 2003 with most of the decline occurring in the Punjab Province. However, from 1994 to 2003 total print circulation increased substantially, particularly for dailies (3 million to 6.2 million). Print media are published in 11 languages, but most are published in Urdu and Sindhi, and English-language publications are numerous. The press generally publishes free from censorship and has played an active role in national elections, but journalists often exercise self-censorship as a result of arrests and intimidation by government and societal actors. Most print media are privately owned, but the government controls the National Press Trust, a major newspaper publisher, and the Associated Press of Pakistan, one of the two major news agencies. The constitution guarantees the rights of free speech and press but also allows for government restrictions in cases of offenses against Islam, public morality, national security, and other circumstances. In fact, the government can fine and imprison those who broadcast material that is deemed inconsistent with “national and social values.”
MEDIA OWNERSHIP IN PAKISTAN
After partition due to financial constraints, print media was not so develop in Pakistan. After that many Urdu, English and other languages newspapers began to be published from different parts of the country. Regarding ownership, the person who is not a citizen of Pakistan shall not own or hold any interest in any newspaper printed or published in a province except with the previous approval of the government, and no such person shall, in any case, own or hold more than twenty-five percent of the entire proprietary interest of any such newspaper. Whether in the form of shares or by way of sole ownership or otherwise.
MAJOR PLAYERS ON PRINT MEDIA IN PAKISTAN
There are three major players on the print media market and in the media market in general.
1. The Jang Group of Newspapers is Pakistan’s largest media group and publishes the Urdu language Daily Jang, The News International, Mag Weekly, and Awam. The group tends has at a moderate conservative perspective.
2. The Dawn Group of newspapers is Pakistan’s second largest media group and produces an array of publications with that include the Star, Herald and the newspaper Dawn, which is its flagship. Dawn is considered a liberal, secular paper with moderate views. The Star is Pakistan’s most popular evening newspaper, and the Herald, is a current affairs monthly.
3. Nawa-i-Waqt is an Urdu language daily newspaper and has one of the largest readerships in the country. It belongs to the Nawa-Waqt group, which also publishes the English newspaper, The Nation. Like The Nation, the Nawa-i- Waqt is a right wing, conservative paper. According to Javid Siddiq, resident editor, the paper stands for democracy and for an Islamic welfare state.
The organisation All Pakistan Newspapers Society (APNS) represents major newspaper publishers and owners and is dominated by the media moguls. It was founded in 1953 by the major pioneering editors and publishers of the day to facilitate the exchange of views between editors and to protect the rights of newspapers. Today, APNS’s primary objective is to safeguard the commercial interests of its membership. If an advertiser defaults on payment, the newspaper company complains to the APNS. With 243 members, APNS will then pressure the company or the ad agency to either pay or be blacklisted.
Thursday 18 August 2011
AIOU Result, BA, MSc Mass Communicaiton Master Result
Allama Iqbal Open University AIOU announced BA result
log on to www.aiou.edu.pk to check your result.
Masters result will be announced shortly. MSc Mass Communication students are requested to please wait few days. After the result announcement we will published a compiled list of candidates who passed the MSc Mass Communication in Autumn 2010 session. Good Luck................
log on to www.aiou.edu.pk to check your result.
Masters result will be announced shortly. MSc Mass Communication students are requested to please wait few days. After the result announcement we will published a compiled list of candidates who passed the MSc Mass Communication in Autumn 2010 session. Good Luck................
Saturday 13 August 2011
GRADUATE ASSESSMENT TEST RESULT
GRADUATE ASSESSMENT TEST (GAT - 2011-IV)
GAT General
RESULT
Test Date : Sunday, 7th August 2011
Check your result click link below:-
http://www.nts.org.pk/NTSWeb/GAT114_7Aug2011Result/Search.asp
Sunday 7 August 2011
Ourselves - Social Psychology
How do we see and explain ourselves? Discuss.
HOW DO WE SEE AND EXPLAIN OURSELVES?
We have considered how we explain others behavior paying special attention to the fundamental attribution error. Social psychologists also study how we explain our own behavior and how we select, interpret, and recall information about ourselves. During the 1980s no topic in psychology was more researched tan the self. In 1990 the word “self” appeared in nearly 4000 book and article summaries in Psychological Abstracts more than double the proportion of 20 years earlier. This new wave of research revealed that our ideas about ourselves powerfully affect how we process social information. Our sense of self organizes our thoughts, feelings, and actions, thereby influencing how we perceive, remember and evaluate both other people and ourselves. The self serves as a sort of mental Dewey Decimal System for cataloging and retrieving information. One example is the self-reference effect: when information is relevant to our self conceptions, we process it more quickly and remember it better. If asked whether specific words, such as outgoing describe us, we later remember those words better than if asked whether they describe someone else. If asked to compare ourselves with a character in a short story, we remember that character better.
But as we process self-relevant information, a potent bias intrudes. We readily attribute our failures to difficult situations and just as readily take credit for our successes. This feeds what for most people is a favorable self-image, enabling them to enjoy the benefits of positive self-esteem while occasionally suffering the perils of self-righteous pride.
The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the object that is known. Current views of the self in psychology position the self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity. Self following from John Locke has been seen as a product of episodic memory but research upon those with amnesia find they have a coherent sense of self based upon preserved conceptual autobiographical knowledge. It may be the case that we can now usefully attempt to ground experience of self in a neural process with cognitive consequences, which will give us insight into the elements of which the complex multiply situated selves of modern identity are composed.
THE WORKING SELF-CONCEPT - MARKUS & WURF
The working self-concept suggests the idea that not all self-representations or identities that are part of the complete self-concept will be accessible at any one time (Markus & Wurf, 1987). The working self-concept, or the self-concept of the moment, is best viewed as a “continually active, shifting array of accessible self-knowledge” (Hinkley & Anderson, 1996). The self-concept is active, forceful and capable of change. It does not simply reflect behavior, but rather mediates and regulates behavior. It adjusts to different situations and analyzes and interprets relevant experiences.
Although some ambiguity still exists when trying to define precisely what a self-concept is, many recent models have attempted to describe the self-concept in terms of its structural features, focusing on the “nature of cognitive representations of the self” (Greenwald Pratkanis 1984, Kihlstrom & Cantor 1984). Others categorize the self-concept as a system of generalizations about the self derived from past social experiences, or as a “multidimensional meaning space” (Greenwald & Pratkanis 1984, Hoelter 1985). Nonetheless, all researchers do agree on the dynamic and multifaceted nature of the self-concept. It continually adapts to every unique social situation.
Extensive research on the multidimensionality of the self-concept prompted the theory of the working self-concept. Psychologists and sociologists came to the realization that it was no longer possible to refer to just one, sole self-concept. Instead, it was necessary to refer to the “working, on-line, or accessible self-concept” (Schlenker 1985b, Cantor & Kihlstrom 1986, Markus & Nurius 1986, Rhodewalt 1986, Rhodewalte & Agustsdottir 1986). Individuals possess a great diversity of complex knowledge structures from which different substructures can be activated. These substructures can be creatively combined and used to meet the demands of different occasions (Markus & Kunda 1986). Therefore, the self-concept includes a wide variety of self-conceptions, from the good-selves to the bad-selves, to the feared-selves. The self is perhaps best understood as a “family of selves” with various overlapping resemblances, and with some selves more prominent, elaborated and accessible than others (N. Cantor & Kihlstrom,1987; Kihlstrom & Cantor, 1984; Linville, 1985; Markus & Wurf, 1987; Niedenthal, Setterlund, & Wherry, 1992; Ogilvie, 1987).
The reason for one self-concept to be prevalent over another in certain situations can be attributed to specific environmental cues combined with one’s own personal agendas and needs. (Harter, 1988, 1990; Linville & Carlston, 1994; Markus& Kunda, 1986;Markus& Wurf, 1987;Rhodewalt, 1986). The content of the self-concept at the present time depends on what has been invoked by the individual as a result of an experience, event, or the current social situation. Markus and Wurf (1987) describe the working self-concept as “a temporary structure consisting of elements from the collection of self-conceptions, organized in a configuration determined by ongoing social events” (Markus & Wurf 1987).
A large body of research has indicated that individuals are influenced greatly in all aspects of judgment, memory, and explicit behavior by their currently accessible pool of thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs (Nisbett & Ross 1980, Higgins & King 1981, Sherman et al 1981, Snyder 1982). For example, research by Higgins and King (1981) showed that individual differences in construct accessibility can cause differences both in people's impressions and in their memory of a target person (Higgins & King, 1981). They set up two studies; in the first session of each study, subjects' accessible traits were elicited by asking them to list the characteristics of different people, with accessibility defined as frequency of output (Study 1) or as primacy of output (Study 2). In the second session, held 1 or 2 weeks later and supposedly investigating a different issue for a different researcher, subjects read an essay describing the behaviors of a target person. The essay contained both accessible trait-related information and inaccessible trait-related information for each subject, with different traits being accessible or inaccessible for different subjects. Both studies found that subjects deleted significantly more inaccessible trait-related information than accessible trait-related information in their impressions and in their reproductions of the target information. Moreover, this effect on impressions and reproductions was evident even 2 weeks after exposure to the target information (Study 1) (Higgins & King, 1981).
Some self-conceptions, because of their importance in defining the self, are enduringly salient while others vary in accessibility depending on the social situation and the individual’s affective or motivational state. The self-conceptions that are constantly available for characterizing one’s self are called “chronically accessible” (Higgins, et al 1982). These conceptions are always prevalent in reflecting one’s behavior and have been labeled as “core self-conceptions,” or “self-schemas” (Markus, 1977). This combination of core self-conceptions with fluctuating self-conceptions allows the self-concept to be both stable and malleable at the same time. Central conceptions affect information processing and behavior more prominently, while more peripheral self-conceptions have a smaller, yet still significant effect on how people present themselves (Hinkley & Anderson, 1996). The working self-concept, therefore, consists of core self-conceptions embedded in a context of more tentative self-conceptions that are tied to the current situation (Markus & Wurf, 1987).
Markus and Kunda Study (1986) To prove the malleability of the self-concept, Markus and Kunda (1986) set up an experiment that either questioned participants’ uniqueness to others, or questioned their similarity to others. They asked participants to answer 18 personal questions and then manipulated the results to suggest that participants were either extremely similar or extremely different from everyone else who has participated in the study. Markus and Kunda (1986) reasoned that when people received information about themselves that threatened a certain core self-conception, they would make every effort to reaffirm that aspect of their selves. Thus, people led to think of themselves as extremely similar to others would experience a threat to their uniqueness and strive to reaffirm their self-conceptions of uniqueness, whereas people led to feel extremely unique would attempt to bolster their self-conceptions as similar to others. Fromkin (1970; Snyder & Fromkin, 1980), in fact, has shown that both extreme similarity and extreme uniqueness are aversive states and lead to behavioral attempts to reestablish the opposite state. To prove that the participants had indeed altered their self-perceptions, they were asked to either endorse or not endorse specific words as self-descriptive. Also, the latencies of participants’ “me” or “not me” responses to uniqueness or similarity words was tested in addition to the number of positive and negative associations to uniqueness and similarity words. Results and Conclusion of Study: The experiment indeed confirmed the malleability of the working self-concept. Individuals led to feel unique were apparently disturbed by this knowledge and, following the preference manipulation, viewed the state of uniqueness as negative and undesirable, whereas the state of similarity to others became correspondingly positive and desirable. Subjects led to feel similar felt the exact opposite effect. It showed that a challenging event appears to initiate a process whereby the individual evaluates the information and then responds by attempting to integrate the self-conceptions offered by the environment with existing self-conceptions. In this case, the working self-concept was quite situation dependent (Markus & Kunda, 1986).
In conclusion, evidence suggests that the self-concept should not be viewed as a monolithic entity or a general sense of self that remains static from situation to situation. It instead should be thought of as an extremely adaptive essence that we use to represent ourselves every day in a creative and unique way.
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